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| *[https://sci-hub.se/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2005.06.024 PDF Version] | | *[https://sci-hub.se/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2005.06.024 PDF Version] |
| *Citation: Tariq M, Khan HA, Elfaki I, Al Deeb S, Al Moutaery K. Neuroprotective effect of nicotine against 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP)-induced experimental Huntington's disease in rats. Brain Res Bull. 2005 Sep 30;67(1-2):161-8. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2005.06.024. PMID: 16140176. | | *Citation: Tariq M, Khan HA, Elfaki I, Al Deeb S, Al Moutaery K. Neuroprotective effect of nicotine against 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP)-induced experimental Huntington's disease in rats. Brain Res Bull. 2005 Sep 30;67(1-2):161-8. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2005.06.024. PMID: 16140176. |
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| ==Mental Health - ADD / ADHD / Attention== <!--T:121-->
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| *[https://www.nami.org/About-Mental-Illness/Mental-Health-Conditions/ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - Information from NAMI]
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| *[https://www.understood.org/en/learning-thinking-differences/child-learning-disabilities/add-adhd/is-adhd-a-mental-illness Is ADHD a mental illness?]
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| **Mental illness is a very broad term. It refers to any type of condition that affects a person’s behavior, mood, or thinking.
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| **Technically a mental illness, few practitioners use the words “mental illness” to describe kids with ADHD. They tend to refer to it as a “behavior disorder.” Some might even refer to it as a learning difference that can affect all areas of learning.
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| *[https://www.understood.org/en/learning-thinking-differences/child-learning-disabilities/add-adhd/difference-between-add-adhd The difference between ADD and ADHD]
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| *A more accurate definition of ADD/ADHD is that it's a neurodevelopmental disorder. Viewing it as a "behavior disorder" is stigmatizing and misleading. People with ADHD are not making a choice to behave differently than NT people.
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| ===2018 [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6018192/ Cognitive Effects of Nicotine: Recent Progress]===
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| *Preclinical models and human studies have demonstrated that nicotine has cognitive-enhancing effects. Attention, working memory, fine motor skills and episodic memory functions are particularly sensitive to nicotine’s effects.
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| *High rates of smoking are observed among individuals with psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and comorbid substance use disorders (SUD). Because these psychiatric disorders are associated with various cognitive impairments, including deficits in attention, working memory, and response inhibition functions, the cognitive enhancing effects of nicotine may be especially important determinants of the initation and maintenance of smoking in this comorbid population. Growing evidence suggest that cognitive enhancing effects of nicotine may also contribute to the difficulty in quitting smoking, especially in individuals with psychiatric disorders.
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| *[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6018192/pdf/CN-16-403.pdf PDF Version]
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| *Citation: Valentine G, Sofuoglu M. Cognitive Effects of Nicotine: Recent Progress. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2018;16(4):403-414. doi: 10.2174/1570159X15666171103152136. PMID: 29110618; PMCID: PMC6018192.
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| ===2011 [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3353150/ Cognitive enhancers for the treatment of ADHD]=== <!--T:123-->
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| *Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common psychiatric disorders, affecting approximately 8–9% of school-aged children and 4–5% of adults (Froehlich et al., 2007; Kessler et al., 2006; Visser et al., 2007). Although formally the disorder is characterized by developmentally inappropriate levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity (APA, 2000), myriad phenotypic features—many of which are related to cognition broadly defined—have been shown to distinguish those with ADHD from those without the disorder.
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| *Together, these findings have led to the hypothesis that individuals with ADHD may smoke in order to alleviate requisite symptoms of the disorder and further suggest nicotine and/or nicotinic agonists can be used to improve aspects of cognitive function in these patients (McClernon and Kollins, 2008). Some support for this hypothesis has been provided by studies which have shown positive effects of nicotine on ADHD symptoms (Gehricke et al., 2009; Shytle et al., 2002) and cognitive performance (Levin et al., 1996; Potter and Newhouse, 2004) in non-smokers with ADHD. Whereas there are currently no FDA-approved nicotinic agonists to treat ADHD, laboratory and small-scale clinical trials have been conducted in recent years, and novel nicotinic pharmacotherapies are on the horizon.
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| ===2009 [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20025370/ Effects of transdermal nicotine on symptoms, moods, and cardiovascular activity in the everyday lives of smokers and nonsmokers with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]=== <!--T:125-->
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| <!--T:126-->
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| *Nicotine reduced reports of ADHD symptoms by 8% and negative moods by 9%, independent of smoking status. In addition, nicotine increased cardiovascular activity during the first 3 to 6 hours after nicotine patch administration. The results support the self-medication hypothesis for nicotine in adults with ADHD and suggest that smoking cessation and prevention efforts for individuals with ADHD will need to address both the symptom reducing and mood enhancing effects of nicotine.
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| ===2008 [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0091305707003048?via%3Dihub Acute nicotine improves cognitive deficits in young adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]=== <!--T:127-->
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| <!--T:128-->
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| *Non-smoking young adults with ADHD-C showed improvements in cognitive performance following nicotine administration in several domains that are central to [[Special:MyLanguage/Abbreviations|'''ADHD''']].
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| *[https://sci-hub.st/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2007.09.014 PDF Version]
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| *Citation: Alexandra S. Potter, Paul A. Newhouse, Acute nicotine improves cognitive deficits in young adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, Volume 88, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 407-417, ISSN 0091-3057, doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2007.09.014.
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| *Acknowledgements: This work was supported by: GCRC M01-00109 and Targacept Inc.
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| ===2007 [https://www.academia.edu/2412620/Smoking_to_self_medicate_attentional_and_emotional_dysfunctions Smoking to self-medicate attentional and emotional dysfunctions]===
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| *The data from diverse studies are generally consistent with the self-medication hypothesis and suggest that individuals with ADHD may smoke to alleviate symptoms associated with attention deficit, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. More studies on larger samples are necessary to assess the differential risks for adolescent smoking initiation that are associated with ADHD subtypes and with ODD and CD comorbidities.
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| ===2006 [https://www.academia.edu/17983526/The_reinforcing_effects_of_nicotine_and_stimulant_medication_in_the_everyday_lives_of_adult_smokers_with_ADHD_A_preliminary_examination The reinforcing effects of nicotine and stimulant medication in the everyday lives of adult smokers with ADHD: A preliminary examination]===
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| *The findings suggest that smokers with ADHD experience nicotine-related reductions in ADHD symptoms during their everyday lives.
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| ===2006 [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031938405005627?via%3Dihub Effects of transdermal nicotine on attention in adult non-smokers with and without attentional deficits]=== <!--T:129-->
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| *The results showed nicotine-induced improvement on some measures of sustained attention in the low attention group and some decrement in working memory in the high attention group, which suggests that nicotine tends to optimize rather than improve performance on cognitive tasks.
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| *[https://sci-hub.st/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.12.011 PDF Version]
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| *Citation: D.V. Poltavski, T. Petros, Effects of transdermal nicotine on attention in adult non-smokers with and without attentional deficits, Physiology & Behavior, Volume 87, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 614-624, ISSN 0031-9384, doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.12.011.
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| ===2003: [https://www.academia.edu/2412608/Is_There_a_Link_Between_Adolescent_Cigarette_Smoking_and_Pharmacotherapy_for_ADHD Is There a Link Between Adolescent Cigarette Smoking and pharmacotherapy for ADHD?]===
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| *Self-report surveys, electronic diaries, and salivary cotinine all indicated that adolescents treated with pharmacotherapy for ADHD smoked less than their untreated counterparts over 2 years of high school. These convergent findings from 3 disparate indicators lend support to the self-medication hypothesis over the gateway hypothesis, although alternative explanations need further study. The findings also suggest that early treatment of psychological and behavioral problems may prevent or delay smoking initiation
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| *Citation: Whalen, C. K., Jamner, L. D., Henker, B., Gehricke, J.-G., & King, P. S. (2003). Is There a Link Between Adolescent Cigarette Smoking and Pharmacotherapy for ADHD? Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 17(4), 332–335. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.17.4.332
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| ===2001 [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2001-14365-012 Effects of chronic nicotine and methylphenidate in adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.]===
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| *This small study (40 participants) provided evidence that nicotine treatment can reduce severity of attentional deficit symptoms and produce improvement on an objective computerized attention task.
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| *Citation: Levin, E. D., Conners, C. K., Silva, D., Canu, W., & March, J. (2001). Effects of chronic nicotine and methylphenidate in adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 9(1), 83–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/1064-1297.9.1.83
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| ===1998 [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9860103/ Transdermal nicotine effects on attention]=== <!--T:131-->
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| <!--T:132-->
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| *This study shows that, in addition to reducing attentional impairment, nicotine administered via transdermal patches can improve attentiveness in normal adult non-smokers.
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| *[https://sci-hub.st/10.1007/s002130050750 PDF Version]
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| *Citation: Levin ED, Conners CK, Silva D, Hinton SC, Meck WH, March J, Rose JE. Transdermal nicotine effects on attention. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1998 Nov;140(2):135-41. doi: 10.1007/s002130050750. PMID: 9860103
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| *Acknowledgement: The authors thank R.J. Reynolds for financial support of the project. Work on this article was partially supported by Career Science Award (K05MH0122903) to Dr. Conners and Research Scientist Development Award (K02MH0098102) to Dr. March
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| ===1996 [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8741955/ Nicotine effects on adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]=== <!--T:133-->
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| <!--T:134-->
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| *Nicotine caused a significant overall nicotine-induced improvement on the CGI. This effect was significant when only the nonsmokers were considered, which indicated that it was not due merely to withdrawal relief. Nicotine caused significantly increased vigor as measured by the POMS test. Nicotine caused an overall significant reduction in reaction time (RT) on the CPT, as well as, with the smokers, a significant reduction in another index of inattention, variability in reaction time over trial blocks. Nicotine improved accuracy of time estimation and lowered variability of time-estimation response curves. Because improvements occurred among nonsmokers, the nicotine effect appears not to be merely a relief of withdrawal symptoms. It is concluded that nicotine deserves further clinical trials with ADHD.
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| *[https://sci-hub.st/10.1007/BF02246281 PDF Version]
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| *Citation: Levin ED, Conners CK, Sparrow E, Hinton SC, Erhardt D, Meck WH, Rose JE, March J. Nicotine effects on adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1996 Jan;123(1):55-63. doi: 10.1007/BF02246281. PMID: 8741955.
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| *Acknowledgement: The authors thank Dr. Allen Frances, Chairman of the Department of Psychiatry, Duke University Meidcal Center for his finanical support of the project. Work on this article was partially supported by Career Science Award (K05MH01229-03) to Dr. Conners and Research Scientist Development Award (K20MH00981-02) to Dr. March and a Young Investigator Award from the National Alliance for Research Schizophenia and Depression to Dr. Levin.
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